The Usefulness of Engineering Geological and Geotechnical Studies in Civil Engineering Sites Foundation Design Parameters Consideration and Construction: A Case Study in SW Nigeria
Keywords:
Geotechnical method, Cone Penetration Test, Borehole Log, Hydraulic Head, Resistivity StructureAbstract
Engineering site investigation for shallow foundation design is carried out in Ose Local Government of Ondo State using integrated geotechnical, geophysical, hydrogeological measurements, and borehole logging. The northern part of the area is underlain by rocks of Migmatite-Gneiss Complex of Southwestern Nigeria, while the southern area is Cretaceous Ewekoro Formation. The static water level ranges from 3.1 to 15.9 m, while the hydraulic head varies between 38.9-371.8 m. Low static water level is observed in clay shale/sandstone lithology, while granite, migmatite and granite gneiss are characterized by high static water level. The hydraulic head map shows possible groundwater flow direction of south, as the values of hydraulic head in the study area reduce towards the south. The plasticity chart and clay mineral group indicate predominant high plasticity soil group (CH) with general AASHTO class of A-6 characteristic of poor soil material. All samples fall above the A-line, indicating clayey inorganic material. The mineral group of the soil is closer to illites. The soils are also characterized by high plasticity index (23.8% avg.) and show moderate to high shear parameters. The targeted CPT value of 100 kg/cm² corresponding to 245KN/m² is obtained at a depth of 3.0 m. The allowable bearing capacity of the soils (within upper 3 m) varies from 6 KN/m² to 309 KN/m² respectively, while the ultimate bearing capacity varies between 18 KN/m² and 927 KN/m², respectively. The settlement values obtained from the area are generally less than 20 mm from each of the subsurface layers. The minimum settlement values obtained vary from 0.68 mm to 0.80 mm at depth of 0.8 m and 3 m respectively. These depths would be appropriate for the design of foundation structure because they are characterized with low settlement with allowable bearing pressures greater than 100 KN/m².References
AASHTO, 1982. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Materials, Part 1, Specifications, Washington.
Abiye, O.D., Oni, A.G., Olorunfemi, M.O., 2019. Integrated Geophysical Investigation of Suspected Structurally Controlled Valleys within the Basement Complex Underlain Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria, The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology 20 (2), 319-327.
Adejumo, S.A., Oyerinde, A.O., Akeem, M.O., 2015. Integrated geophysical and geotechnical subsoil evaluation for pre-foundation study of proposed site of vocational skill and entrepreneurship center at the polytechnic, Ibadan, SW, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 6 (6), 910-917.
Adeoti, L., Ojo, A.O., Adegbola, R.B., Fasakin, O.O., 2016. Geoelectric assessment as an aid to geotechnical investigation at a proposed residential development site in Ilubirin, Lagos, Southwestern Nigeria. Arab Journal of Geosciences 9, 338.
Adeoye-Oladapo, O.O., Oladapo, M.I., 2011. Geoelectric investigation of Owuruwuru Dam site, Ikere Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria, Journal of Geology and Mining Research 3 (12), 325-340.
Adewuwi, I., Olorunfemi, M.O., 2005. Using geoinformatics in Construction management. Journal of Applied Sciences 5 (4), 761-767. Adewuyi, I., Philips, F., 2018. Integrated Geophysical and Geotechnical Methods for Pre-Foundation Investigations, Journal of Geology & Geophysics 8 (1), 1-9.
Aina, A., Olorunfemi, M.O., Ojo, J.S., 1996. An Integration of Aeromagnetic and Electrical Resistivity Methods in Dam Site Investigation. Geophysics 61 (2), 349-356.
Aka, M.U., Agbasi, O.E., Ibuota, J.C., Mboutidem D.D., 2020. Assessing the Susceptibility of Structural Collapse using Seismic Refraction Method. Earth Sciences Malaysia (ESMY) 4 (2), 135-140.
Akinlabi, I.A., Adeyemi, G.O., 2014. Determination of Empirical Relations between Geolectrical Data and Geotechnical Parameters in Foundation Studies for a proposed Earth Dam. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology 15 (2), 278-287.
Anomohanran, O., 2012. Geophysical interpretation of seismic reflection data obtained from Umureute and Amiynaibo area of Delta state. Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment 11, 148-153.
Atat, J.G., Akpabio, G.T., George, N.J., Umoren, E.B., 2012. Geophysical Assessment of Elastic Constants of Top Soil using Seismic Refraction Compressional and Shear wave Velocity in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Modern Applied Physics 1 (1), 7-19.
Bayowa, O., Ogungbesan, G., Majolagbe, R., Oyeleke, S., 2016. Geophysical prospecting for iron ore deposit around Tajimi village, Lokoja, North–Central Nigeria, RMZ-Material and Geoenvironment 63, 151-160.
Bell, F.G., 2007. Engineering geology. Elsevier Ltd; ISBN: 978-81-312-1117-5. Blyth, F.G.H., De Freitas, M.H., 1984. A Geology for Engineers. 7th edn, Edward Arnold, London, 147 pp.
Brink, A.B.A., Parridge, J.C., Williams, A.A.B., 1992. Soil Survey for Engineering, Claredon, Oxford.
British Standard Institution 1377, 1990. Methods of Test for Soil for Civil Engineering Purposes, London.
Casagrande, A., 1947. Classification and Identification of soils. America Society of Civil Engineers, 783-811.
Daramola, S.O., Malomo, S., Asiwaju‑Bello, Y.A., 2018. Premature failure of a major highway in southwestern Nigeria: the case of Ipele-Isua highway. International Journal of Geo-Engineering 9 (28), 1-12.
Das, B.M., 1997. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th ed., PWS Pub. Co., Boston, Ma 572pp.
Ehinola, O.A., Oluwajana, A., Nwabueze, C.O., 2012. Geophysical mapping and reserve estimation of limestone deposit at Arimogija – Okeluse parts of South-western Nigeria. Research Journal in Engineering and Applied Sciences 1 (1), 7-11.
Essex, R.J., 2007. Geotechnical Baseline Reports for Construction- Suggested Guidelines, ASCE Publication, 62 pp.
Evinemi, I.E., Adepelumi, A.A., Adebayo, O., 2019. Canal structure subsidence investigation using ground penetrating radar and geotechnical techniques. International Journal of Geo-Engineering 7 (9), 1-14.
Fajana, A.O., Olaseeni, O.G., Bamidele, O.E., Olabode, O.P., 2016. Geophysical and geotechnical investigation for post foundation studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Federal University Oye Ekiti. FUOYE J Eng Tech 1: 2579-0617. Falowo, O.O., 2020. Engineering Site Investigation and Shallow Foundation Design in Ore Area of Ondo State, Nigeria, RMZ-Material and Geoenvironment 67, 1-13.
Falowo, O.O., Aliu, A., 2020. Geoengineering Investigation of an Erosion Induced Highway Structural Failure along Ifon-Benin Highway, Southwestern Nigeria. Earth Sciences Malaysia 4 (1), 51-60.
Faseki, O.E., Olatinpo, O.A., Taiwo, O.B., 2016. Ground Investigation of an Engineering Site at Point Road, Apapa, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Engineering and Energy Research 6 (1), 1-20.
Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, 1972. Highway Manual Part 1, Road and Bridge Design, Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, Lagos. Federal Meteorological Survey, 1982. Atlas of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Second Edition. Federal Surveys, Lagos, Nigeria, 160 pp.
Gadallah, M.R., Fisher, R., 2009. Exploration Geophysics: An Introduction, Springer Publication, 274 pp.
Geological Survey of Nigeria, 1984. Geological Map of Southwestern Nigeria. Geological Survey Department, Ministry of Mines, Power and Steel, Nigeria.
Geotechnical Engineering Office: Geoguide 2, 1987. Guide to site investigations. Civil Engineering Department, Hong Kong, 365 pp.
Grim, R.E., 1953. Clay Mineralogy. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Holtz, R.D., Kovacs, W.D., 1981. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc.: Eaglewoods Cliff, NJ. 733.
Idornigie, A.I., Olorunfemi, M.O., Omitogun, A.A., 2006. Integration of remotely sensed and geophysical data sets in engineering site characterization in a Basement complex of southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2 (9), 541-552.
Iloeje, N.P., 1981. A new geography of Nigeria (New Revised Edition) published by Longman Nig. Ltd., Lagos, 201 pp.
Jegede, G., 2000. Effect of soil properties on pavement failure along the F209 highway at Ado Ekiti Southwestern Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Science 14, 121-126.
Jegede, G., 1999. Engineering Geological Significance of the Superficial Deposits in Carrington Hill Area, Country Conc. Ireland. Nigeria Journal of Science 28, 153-158.
Jones, A.A., Hockey, R.O., 2010. The geology of part of southwestern Nigeria: Explanation of 1:250,000 sheets Nos. 59 and 68. Bulletin (Geological Survey of Nigeria) 31, 110.
Krynine, D.P., William, J.R., 1957. Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics. McGraw - Hill: New York, NY. 159, 537.
Kumar, J., 2003. Seismic Bearing Capacity Factors for Spread Foundations, Banabara India Geotechnique 3 (53), 363-369.
Lowrie, W., 2007. Fundamentals of Geophysics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, 393pp.
Mededor, A.C. 1983. Pavement design guidelines and practice for different geological area in Nigeria. In: Ola S.A. (Ed) tropical soil of Nigeria in engineering practice. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 291-297.
Mesida, E.A., 1981. Laterites on the Highway - Understanding Soil Behaviour. West African Technical Review, November, 1981. Pp 112-118.
Meyerhof, G.G., 1974. General Report: State-of-the-Art of Penetration Testing in Countries outside Europe. Proceedings of the 1st European Symposium on Penetration Testing Vol 2 (1), 40-48.
Mundher, D.N., 2016. Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Evaluation of Subsoil at a proposed Engineering Site NE of Baghdad City. Diyala Journal of Engineering Sciences 9, 50-61.
Murthy, V.N.S., 2007. Advanced Foundation Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering Series. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi – 110002, India.795 pp.
Obaje, N.G., 2009. Geology and mineral resources of Nigeria. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 120 pp.
Ochuko, A., 2013. Seismic refraction method: A technique for determining the thickness of stratified substratum. American Journal of Applied Sciences 10 (8), 857-862.
Ojo, J.S., Olorunfemi, M.O., Omosuyi, G.O., 2007. Geoelectric sounding to delineate shallow Aquifers in the coastal plain sands of Okitipupa Area, southwestern Nigeria. Online Journal of Earth Sciences 1 (4), 170-179.
Okogbue, C.O., Onyeobi, T.U.S., 1999. Potential of marble dust to stabilize red tropical soils for road Construction. Engineering Geology 53, 371-380.
Okogbue, C.O., 1985. Evaluation of Strength Properties of Mineral Soil. Journal Mining and Geology 22 (1-2), 89-97.
Okogbue, C.O., Ene, G.E., 2008. Geochemical and Geotechnical Characteristics and the Potential for use in Drilling Mud of Some Clay Bodies in Southeastern Nigeria. Journal Mining and Geology 44 (2), 121-130.
Olayanju, G.M., Mogaji, K.A., Lim, H.S., Ojo, T.S., 2017. Foundation integrity assessment using integrated geophysical and geotechnical techniques: Case study in crystalline basement complex, southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering 14, 675-690.
Olorunfemi, M.O., Ojo, J.S., Sonuga, F.A., Ajayi, O., Oladapo, M.I., 2000. Geoelectric and Electromagnetic Investigation of the Failed Koza and Nassarawa Earth Dams around Katsina, Northern Nigeria. Journal Mining and Geology 36 (1), 51-65.
Olorunfemi, M.O., Ojo, J.S., Idoringie, A.I., Oyetoran, W.E., 2005. Geophysical Investigation of Structural Failure of a Factory Site in Asaba Area, Southern Nigeria. Journal Mining and Geology 41 (2), 111-121.
Onoja, S.O, Osifila, A.J., 2015. Integrated Geophysical Investigation of a Suspected Spring in Igbokoran, Ikare-Akoko, Southwestern Nigeria, IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics 3 (5), 83-91.
Osinowo, O.O., Falufosi, M.O., 2018. 3-D Electrical resistivity Imaging (ERI) for Subsurface evaluation in pre-engineering construction site investigation. Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics 7, 309-317.
Oyedele, K.F, Oladele, S., Salami, A., 2016. Geophysical investigation of banded iron ore mineralization at Ero, North - Central Nigeria. RMZ Materials and Geoenvironment 63, 109-118.
Oyedele, K.F., Oladele, S., Emakpor, C.A., 2016. Exploration for limestone deposit at Onigbedu, South‑Western Nigeria. RMZ-Material and Geoenvironment 63, 139-150.
Oyedele, K.F., Oladele, S., Adedoyin, O., 2011. Application of Geophysical and Geophysical Methods to Site Characterization for Construction Purposes at Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering 1 (1), 87- 100.
Oyedele, K.F., Okoh, C., 2011. Subsoil investigation using integrated methods at Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Geology and Mining Research 3 (7), 169-179.
Oyeyemi, K.D., Olofinnade, O.M., 2016. Geoelectrical-Geotechnical Studies for near surface characterization, case history – Lagos, SW Nigeria. European Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 21 (10), 3735-3750.
Reynolds, J.M., 2011. An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 2nd ed., Wiley, pp.710.
Robertson, P.K., 1990. Soil classification using the cone penetration test. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 27 (1), 151-158.
Skempton, A.W., Bjerrum, L., 1957. A contribution to the settlement analysis of foundation on clay. Geotechnique 7, 168-178.
Schmertmann, J.H., 1978. Guidelines for Cone Penetration Test: Performance and Design. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Shiva, P.K.K., Darga, K.N., 2016. Use of CPT and DCP based correlations in characterization of subgrade of a highway in Southern Ethiopia Region. International Journal of Geo-Engineering 7 (11), 1-15.
Abiye, O.D., Oni, A.G., Olorunfemi, M.O., 2019. Integrated Geophysical Investigation of Suspected Structurally Controlled Valleys within the Basement Complex Underlain Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria, The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology 20 (2), 319-327.
Adejumo, S.A., Oyerinde, A.O., Akeem, M.O., 2015. Integrated geophysical and geotechnical subsoil evaluation for pre-foundation study of proposed site of vocational skill and entrepreneurship center at the polytechnic, Ibadan, SW, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 6 (6), 910-917.
Adeoti, L., Ojo, A.O., Adegbola, R.B., Fasakin, O.O., 2016. Geoelectric assessment as an aid to geotechnical investigation at a proposed residential development site in Ilubirin, Lagos, Southwestern Nigeria. Arab Journal of Geosciences 9, 338.
Adeoye-Oladapo, O.O., Oladapo, M.I., 2011. Geoelectric investigation of Owuruwuru Dam site, Ikere Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria, Journal of Geology and Mining Research 3 (12), 325-340.
Adewuwi, I., Olorunfemi, M.O., 2005. Using geoinformatics in Construction management. Journal of Applied Sciences 5 (4), 761-767. Adewuyi, I., Philips, F., 2018. Integrated Geophysical and Geotechnical Methods for Pre-Foundation Investigations, Journal of Geology & Geophysics 8 (1), 1-9.
Aina, A., Olorunfemi, M.O., Ojo, J.S., 1996. An Integration of Aeromagnetic and Electrical Resistivity Methods in Dam Site Investigation. Geophysics 61 (2), 349-356.
Aka, M.U., Agbasi, O.E., Ibuota, J.C., Mboutidem D.D., 2020. Assessing the Susceptibility of Structural Collapse using Seismic Refraction Method. Earth Sciences Malaysia (ESMY) 4 (2), 135-140.
Akinlabi, I.A., Adeyemi, G.O., 2014. Determination of Empirical Relations between Geolectrical Data and Geotechnical Parameters in Foundation Studies for a proposed Earth Dam. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology 15 (2), 278-287.
Anomohanran, O., 2012. Geophysical interpretation of seismic reflection data obtained from Umureute and Amiynaibo area of Delta state. Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment 11, 148-153.
Atat, J.G., Akpabio, G.T., George, N.J., Umoren, E.B., 2012. Geophysical Assessment of Elastic Constants of Top Soil using Seismic Refraction Compressional and Shear wave Velocity in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Modern Applied Physics 1 (1), 7-19.
Bayowa, O., Ogungbesan, G., Majolagbe, R., Oyeleke, S., 2016. Geophysical prospecting for iron ore deposit around Tajimi village, Lokoja, North–Central Nigeria, RMZ-Material and Geoenvironment 63, 151-160.
Bell, F.G., 2007. Engineering geology. Elsevier Ltd; ISBN: 978-81-312-1117-5. Blyth, F.G.H., De Freitas, M.H., 1984. A Geology for Engineers. 7th edn, Edward Arnold, London, 147 pp.
Brink, A.B.A., Parridge, J.C., Williams, A.A.B., 1992. Soil Survey for Engineering, Claredon, Oxford.
British Standard Institution 1377, 1990. Methods of Test for Soil for Civil Engineering Purposes, London.
Casagrande, A., 1947. Classification and Identification of soils. America Society of Civil Engineers, 783-811.
Daramola, S.O., Malomo, S., Asiwaju‑Bello, Y.A., 2018. Premature failure of a major highway in southwestern Nigeria: the case of Ipele-Isua highway. International Journal of Geo-Engineering 9 (28), 1-12.
Das, B.M., 1997. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th ed., PWS Pub. Co., Boston, Ma 572pp.
Ehinola, O.A., Oluwajana, A., Nwabueze, C.O., 2012. Geophysical mapping and reserve estimation of limestone deposit at Arimogija – Okeluse parts of South-western Nigeria. Research Journal in Engineering and Applied Sciences 1 (1), 7-11.
Essex, R.J., 2007. Geotechnical Baseline Reports for Construction- Suggested Guidelines, ASCE Publication, 62 pp.
Evinemi, I.E., Adepelumi, A.A., Adebayo, O., 2019. Canal structure subsidence investigation using ground penetrating radar and geotechnical techniques. International Journal of Geo-Engineering 7 (9), 1-14.
Fajana, A.O., Olaseeni, O.G., Bamidele, O.E., Olabode, O.P., 2016. Geophysical and geotechnical investigation for post foundation studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Federal University Oye Ekiti. FUOYE J Eng Tech 1: 2579-0617. Falowo, O.O., 2020. Engineering Site Investigation and Shallow Foundation Design in Ore Area of Ondo State, Nigeria, RMZ-Material and Geoenvironment 67, 1-13.
Falowo, O.O., Aliu, A., 2020. Geoengineering Investigation of an Erosion Induced Highway Structural Failure along Ifon-Benin Highway, Southwestern Nigeria. Earth Sciences Malaysia 4 (1), 51-60.
Faseki, O.E., Olatinpo, O.A., Taiwo, O.B., 2016. Ground Investigation of an Engineering Site at Point Road, Apapa, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Engineering and Energy Research 6 (1), 1-20.
Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, 1972. Highway Manual Part 1, Road and Bridge Design, Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, Lagos. Federal Meteorological Survey, 1982. Atlas of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Second Edition. Federal Surveys, Lagos, Nigeria, 160 pp.
Gadallah, M.R., Fisher, R., 2009. Exploration Geophysics: An Introduction, Springer Publication, 274 pp.
Geological Survey of Nigeria, 1984. Geological Map of Southwestern Nigeria. Geological Survey Department, Ministry of Mines, Power and Steel, Nigeria.
Geotechnical Engineering Office: Geoguide 2, 1987. Guide to site investigations. Civil Engineering Department, Hong Kong, 365 pp.
Grim, R.E., 1953. Clay Mineralogy. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Holtz, R.D., Kovacs, W.D., 1981. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc.: Eaglewoods Cliff, NJ. 733.
Idornigie, A.I., Olorunfemi, M.O., Omitogun, A.A., 2006. Integration of remotely sensed and geophysical data sets in engineering site characterization in a Basement complex of southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2 (9), 541-552.
Iloeje, N.P., 1981. A new geography of Nigeria (New Revised Edition) published by Longman Nig. Ltd., Lagos, 201 pp.
Jegede, G., 2000. Effect of soil properties on pavement failure along the F209 highway at Ado Ekiti Southwestern Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Science 14, 121-126.
Jegede, G., 1999. Engineering Geological Significance of the Superficial Deposits in Carrington Hill Area, Country Conc. Ireland. Nigeria Journal of Science 28, 153-158.
Jones, A.A., Hockey, R.O., 2010. The geology of part of southwestern Nigeria: Explanation of 1:250,000 sheets Nos. 59 and 68. Bulletin (Geological Survey of Nigeria) 31, 110.
Krynine, D.P., William, J.R., 1957. Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics. McGraw - Hill: New York, NY. 159, 537.
Kumar, J., 2003. Seismic Bearing Capacity Factors for Spread Foundations, Banabara India Geotechnique 3 (53), 363-369.
Lowrie, W., 2007. Fundamentals of Geophysics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, 393pp.
Mededor, A.C. 1983. Pavement design guidelines and practice for different geological area in Nigeria. In: Ola S.A. (Ed) tropical soil of Nigeria in engineering practice. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 291-297.
Mesida, E.A., 1981. Laterites on the Highway - Understanding Soil Behaviour. West African Technical Review, November, 1981. Pp 112-118.
Meyerhof, G.G., 1974. General Report: State-of-the-Art of Penetration Testing in Countries outside Europe. Proceedings of the 1st European Symposium on Penetration Testing Vol 2 (1), 40-48.
Mundher, D.N., 2016. Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Evaluation of Subsoil at a proposed Engineering Site NE of Baghdad City. Diyala Journal of Engineering Sciences 9, 50-61.
Murthy, V.N.S., 2007. Advanced Foundation Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering Series. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi – 110002, India.795 pp.
Obaje, N.G., 2009. Geology and mineral resources of Nigeria. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 120 pp.
Ochuko, A., 2013. Seismic refraction method: A technique for determining the thickness of stratified substratum. American Journal of Applied Sciences 10 (8), 857-862.
Ojo, J.S., Olorunfemi, M.O., Omosuyi, G.O., 2007. Geoelectric sounding to delineate shallow Aquifers in the coastal plain sands of Okitipupa Area, southwestern Nigeria. Online Journal of Earth Sciences 1 (4), 170-179.
Okogbue, C.O., Onyeobi, T.U.S., 1999. Potential of marble dust to stabilize red tropical soils for road Construction. Engineering Geology 53, 371-380.
Okogbue, C.O., 1985. Evaluation of Strength Properties of Mineral Soil. Journal Mining and Geology 22 (1-2), 89-97.
Okogbue, C.O., Ene, G.E., 2008. Geochemical and Geotechnical Characteristics and the Potential for use in Drilling Mud of Some Clay Bodies in Southeastern Nigeria. Journal Mining and Geology 44 (2), 121-130.
Olayanju, G.M., Mogaji, K.A., Lim, H.S., Ojo, T.S., 2017. Foundation integrity assessment using integrated geophysical and geotechnical techniques: Case study in crystalline basement complex, southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering 14, 675-690.
Olorunfemi, M.O., Ojo, J.S., Sonuga, F.A., Ajayi, O., Oladapo, M.I., 2000. Geoelectric and Electromagnetic Investigation of the Failed Koza and Nassarawa Earth Dams around Katsina, Northern Nigeria. Journal Mining and Geology 36 (1), 51-65.
Olorunfemi, M.O., Ojo, J.S., Idoringie, A.I., Oyetoran, W.E., 2005. Geophysical Investigation of Structural Failure of a Factory Site in Asaba Area, Southern Nigeria. Journal Mining and Geology 41 (2), 111-121.
Onoja, S.O, Osifila, A.J., 2015. Integrated Geophysical Investigation of a Suspected Spring in Igbokoran, Ikare-Akoko, Southwestern Nigeria, IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics 3 (5), 83-91.
Osinowo, O.O., Falufosi, M.O., 2018. 3-D Electrical resistivity Imaging (ERI) for Subsurface evaluation in pre-engineering construction site investigation. Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics 7, 309-317.
Oyedele, K.F, Oladele, S., Salami, A., 2016. Geophysical investigation of banded iron ore mineralization at Ero, North - Central Nigeria. RMZ Materials and Geoenvironment 63, 109-118.
Oyedele, K.F., Oladele, S., Emakpor, C.A., 2016. Exploration for limestone deposit at Onigbedu, South‑Western Nigeria. RMZ-Material and Geoenvironment 63, 139-150.
Oyedele, K.F., Oladele, S., Adedoyin, O., 2011. Application of Geophysical and Geophysical Methods to Site Characterization for Construction Purposes at Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering 1 (1), 87- 100.
Oyedele, K.F., Okoh, C., 2011. Subsoil investigation using integrated methods at Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Geology and Mining Research 3 (7), 169-179.
Oyeyemi, K.D., Olofinnade, O.M., 2016. Geoelectrical-Geotechnical Studies for near surface characterization, case history – Lagos, SW Nigeria. European Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 21 (10), 3735-3750.
Reynolds, J.M., 2011. An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 2nd ed., Wiley, pp.710.
Robertson, P.K., 1990. Soil classification using the cone penetration test. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 27 (1), 151-158.
Skempton, A.W., Bjerrum, L., 1957. A contribution to the settlement analysis of foundation on clay. Geotechnique 7, 168-178.
Schmertmann, J.H., 1978. Guidelines for Cone Penetration Test: Performance and Design. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Shiva, P.K.K., Darga, K.N., 2016. Use of CPT and DCP based correlations in characterization of subgrade of a highway in Southern Ethiopia Region. International Journal of Geo-Engineering 7 (11), 1-15.
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