Effect of Soil Salinization on the Liquid Limits of Soils: A Review
Keywords:
Pore fluid salinity, Soil salinization, Atterberg limits, Expansive soils, Non-expansive soilsAbstract
Soil salinization is one of the major effects of ongoing climate change, which has both direct and indirect effects in Civil Engineering. Salt deposition is a major problem that has been observed for last the few decades. The presence of salt alters the mechanical, chemical, and hydraulic properties of soil materials. Several attempts have been made by researchers to understand the effect of salt concentration on soil properties and its consequences. A good understanding of this is mostly for sustainable development and analysis of different failures. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of research on the effect of pore water salinity on the Atterberg properties of soils. The soils having different mineralogical compositions over the different parts of world have been studied, which includes the study of expansive soils and non-expansive soils. The two possible mechanisms that control Atterberg values under the presence of pore water salinity are diffuse double layer theory and soil fabric. Although much research has been conducted, the explanation of the mechanism controlling the liquid limit values of mixed clay minerals in the presence of salinity is still very limited. A possible reason is the lack of study on these types of soils.
References
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Anson, R.W.W., Hawkins, A.B., 1998. The effect of calcium ions in pore water on the residual shear strength of kaolinite and sodium montmorillonite. Geotechnique 48(6): 787-800.
Arasan, S., and Yetimoglu, T., 2008. Effect of inorganic salt solutions on the consistency limits of two clays. Turkish Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 32 (2), 107-115.
Bjerrum, L., Rosenqvist, I.T., 1956. Some experiments with artificially sedimented clays. Geotechnique 6 (3), 124-136.
COMISSION, O.C., 2021. Title 165: Corporation Commission Chapter 10: Oil and Gas Conservation.
Di Maio, C., 1996. Exposure of bentonite to salt solution: osmotic and mechanical effects. Geotechnique 46 (4), 695-707.
Di Maio, C., Santoli, L., Schiavone, P., 2004. Volume change behaviour of clays: the influence of mineral composition, pore fluid composition and stress state. Mechanics of Materials 36 (5-6), 435-451.
Dutta, J., Mishra, A.K., 2015. A study on the influence of inorganic salts on the behaviour of compacted bentonites. Applied Clay Science 116, 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.08.018.
Egashira, K., Ohtsubo, M., 1981. Low-swelling smectite in a recent marine mud of Ariake Bay. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 27 (2), 205-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.1981.10431272.
Egashira, K., Ohtsubo, M., 1982. Smectitw in marine quick-clays of Japan. Clays and Clay Minerals 30, 275-280.
Franklin W.T. Schmehl. W.R. 1973. Physical, Salinity and Fertility Analysis of Selected Soils. Water Management Technical Report No. 28, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.
Geertsema, M., Torrance, J.K., 2005. Quick clay from the Mink Creek landslide near Terrace, British Columbia: geotechnical properties, mineralogy, and geochemistry. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42 (3), 907-918.
Ghafoor, A., Muhammed, S., Ahmad, N., Mian, M.A., 1988. Indices for the estimation of ESP from SAR of soil solution. Pakistan Journal of Sciences 39-40 89-98.
Ghimire, U., Bheemasetti, T. V., Kozak, P., Kunza, L., 2023. Geochemical Properties and Atterberg Limits of Low Saline Sand-Clay Mixtures. In Geo-Congress 2023, pp. 405-414.
Gleason, M.H., Daniel, D.E., Eykholt, G.R., 1997. Calcium and sodium bentonite for hydraulic containment applications. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 123 (5), 438-445.
Gupta, R.K., Abrol I.P., 1990. Salt affected soils: their reclamation and management for crop production. Advances in Soil Science 11, 224-882.
Horpibulsuk, S., Yangsukkaseam, N., Chinkulkijniwat, A., Du Y.J., 2011. Compressibility and permeability of Bangkok clay compared with kaolinite and bentonite. Applied Clay Sciences 52 (1-2), 150-159.
Kelley, W.P., 1951. Alkali Soils: Their Formation, Properties, and Reclamation (Reinhold Publishing Corporation: New York, N.Y.)
Kim, Y.T., Do, T.H., 2011. Experimental evaluation of leaching effects on the compressibility of marine clay and its strain rate dependency. Marine Georesources and Geotechnology 29 (1), 16-29.
Lambe, T.W., 1953. The structure o f inorganic soil. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 79, 1-49.
Locat, J., Lefebvre, G., 1985. The compressibility and sensitivity of an artificially sedimented clay soil. The Grande‐Baleine Marine Clay, Québec, Canada. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 6, 1-28.
Mansour, Z.M., Taha, M.R., Chik, Z., 2008. Fresh-brine water effect on the basic engineering properties of Lisan Marl-Dead Sea-Jordan. Journal of Applied Sciences 8 (20), 3603-3611. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2008.3603.3611.
Mishra, A.K., Ohtsubo, M., Li, L., Higashi, T., 2005. Effect of salt concentrations on the permeability and compressibility of soil-bentonite mixtures. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture Kyushu University 50 (2), 837-849. https://doi.org/10.5109/4692.
Mishra, A.K., Ohtsubo, M., Li., L.Y., Higashi, T., Park, J., 2009. Effect of salt of various concentrations on liquid limit, and hydraulic conductivity of different soil-bentonite mixtures. Environmental Geology 57, 1145-1153 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1411-0.
Mitchell, J.K., 1956. On the Fabric of Natural Clays. Proceedings of H.R.B. 35.
Mitchell ,J.K., 1993. Fundamentals of soil behavior. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
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Moore, R., 1991. The chemical and mineralogical controls upon the residual strength of pure and natural clays. Geotechnique 41 (1), 35-47. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1991.41.1.35.
Northcote, K.H., Sltene, J.K.M., 1972. Australian soils with saline and sodic properties. CSIRO Aust. Soil Publication 27.
Ogata, N., Yasuda, M., Kataoka, T., 1983. Effects of salt concentration on strength and creep behavior of artificially frozen soils. Cold Regions Science and Technology 8 (2), 13,9-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(83)90005-8.
Ohtsubo, M., Takayama, M., Egashira, K., 1982. Marine quick clays from Ariake Bay area, Japan. Soils and Foundations 22 (4), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.22.4_7.
Olson, R.E., Mitronovas, F., 1962. Shear strength and consolidation characteristics of calcium and magnesium illite. Clays and Clay Minerals 9, 185-209. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1960.0090110.
Ören, A.H., Kaya, A., 2003. Some engineering aspects of homoionized mixed clay minerals. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 84 (1-2), 85-98. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022839215231.
Pitman, M.G., Lauchli, A., 2002. Global impact of salinity and agricultural ecosystems. Salinity: Environment - Plants - Molecules pp. 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48155-3_1.
Pupisky, H., Shainberg, I., 1979. Salt effects on the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 43 (3), 429-433.
Rao, S.M., Sridharan, A., Chandrakaran, S., 1993. Consistency limits behavior of bentonites exposed to sea water. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 11 (3), 213-227.
Rosenqvist, I.T., 1955. Investigations in the clay-electrolyte-water system. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
Song, M.M., Zeng, L.L., Hong, Z.S., 2017. Pore fluid salinity effects on physicochemical-compressive behaviour of reconstituted marine clays. Applied Clay Science 146, 270-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.06.015.
Sridharan, A., 1968. Some Studies on the Strength of Partly Saturated Clays. Ph. D. Thesis, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.
Sridharan, A., Rao, G.V., 1973. Mechamisms Controlling the volume Change Behaviour of Saturated clays and the Role of the Effective Stress Concept. Geotechnique 23, 359-382.
Sridharan, A., Rao, G.V., 1975. Mechanisms controlling the liquid limit of clays. In Proceedings of the Istanbul Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Vol. 1, 65-74.
Sridharan, A.S., Rao, M., Murthy, N.S., 1986. Liquid limit of montmorillonitic soils. American Society for Testing and Materials, Geotechnical Testing Journal 9, 156-159.
Sridharan, A., Rao, S.M., Murthy, N.S., 1988. Liquid limit of kaolinitic soils. Géotechnique 38 (2), 191-198.
Sridharan, A., Prakash, K., 1999. Mechanisms controlling the undrained shear strength behaviour of clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36 (6), 1030-1038. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-07.
Sridharan, A., Prakash, K., 2000. Percussion and cone methods of determining the liquid limit of soils: controlling mechanisms. Geotechnical Testing Journal 23 (2), 236-244.
Sridharan, A., El-Shafei, A., Miura, N., 2002. Mechanisms controlling the undrained strength behavior of remolded Ariake marine clays. Marine Georesources and Geotechnology 20 (1), 21-50.
Suarez, D.L., 2001. Sodic soil reclamation: Modelling and field study. Australian Journal of Soil Research 39, 1225-1246.
Sumner, M.E., Rengasamy, P., Naidu, R., 1998. Sodic soils: A reappraisal. In Sodic Soil: Distribution, Management and Environmental Consequences, pp. 3-17.
Tanji, K.K., 1990. Nature and extent of agricultural salinity. In Agricultural Salinity Assessment and Management, Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practices No. 71, pp. 1-17.
Tiwari, B., Tuladhar, G.R, Marui ,H., 2005. Variation in residual shear strength of the so.il with the salinity of pore fluid. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (12), 1445-1456.
Tiwari, B., Ajmera, B., 2014. Effects of saline fluid on compressibility of clay minerals. Environmental Geotechnics 1(2), 108-120.
Warkentin, B.P., 1961. Interpretation of the upper plastic limit of clays. Nature 190, 287-288.
Warkentin, B.P., Yong, R.N., 1962. Shear strength of montmorillonite and kaolinite related to interparticle forces. Clays and Clay Minerals, Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Clays and Clay Minerals 1962, 210-218.
Yong, R.N., Warkentin, B.P., 1966. Introduction to soil behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Yong, R.N., Warkentin, B.P., 1975. Soil Properties and Behavior. New York: Elsevier.
Yong ,R.N., Mohamed, A.M.O., Warkentin, B.P., 1992. Principles of contaminant transport in soils. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 327.
Ying Z., Cui Y.J., Duc M., Benahmed N., Bessaies-Bey H., Chen, B., 2021. Salinity effect on the liquid limit of soils. Acta Geotechnica 16 (4), 1101-1111 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-01092-7.
Yukselen-Aksoy, Y., Kaya, A., Ören, A.H., 2008. Seawater effect on consistency limits and compressibility characteristics of clays. Engineering Geology 102 (1-2), 54-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.07.005.
Anon, 1965. Glossary of soil science terms. Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WIS.
Anson, R.W.W., Hawkins, A.B., 1998. The effect of calcium ions in pore water on the residual shear strength of kaolinite and sodium montmorillonite. Geotechnique 48(6): 787-800.
Arasan, S., and Yetimoglu, T., 2008. Effect of inorganic salt solutions on the consistency limits of two clays. Turkish Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 32 (2), 107-115.
Bjerrum, L., Rosenqvist, I.T., 1956. Some experiments with artificially sedimented clays. Geotechnique 6 (3), 124-136.
COMISSION, O.C., 2021. Title 165: Corporation Commission Chapter 10: Oil and Gas Conservation.
Di Maio, C., 1996. Exposure of bentonite to salt solution: osmotic and mechanical effects. Geotechnique 46 (4), 695-707.
Di Maio, C., Santoli, L., Schiavone, P., 2004. Volume change behaviour of clays: the influence of mineral composition, pore fluid composition and stress state. Mechanics of Materials 36 (5-6), 435-451.
Dutta, J., Mishra, A.K., 2015. A study on the influence of inorganic salts on the behaviour of compacted bentonites. Applied Clay Science 116, 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.08.018.
Egashira, K., Ohtsubo, M., 1981. Low-swelling smectite in a recent marine mud of Ariake Bay. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 27 (2), 205-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.1981.10431272.
Egashira, K., Ohtsubo, M., 1982. Smectitw in marine quick-clays of Japan. Clays and Clay Minerals 30, 275-280.
Franklin W.T. Schmehl. W.R. 1973. Physical, Salinity and Fertility Analysis of Selected Soils. Water Management Technical Report No. 28, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.
Geertsema, M., Torrance, J.K., 2005. Quick clay from the Mink Creek landslide near Terrace, British Columbia: geotechnical properties, mineralogy, and geochemistry. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42 (3), 907-918.
Ghafoor, A., Muhammed, S., Ahmad, N., Mian, M.A., 1988. Indices for the estimation of ESP from SAR of soil solution. Pakistan Journal of Sciences 39-40 89-98.
Ghimire, U., Bheemasetti, T. V., Kozak, P., Kunza, L., 2023. Geochemical Properties and Atterberg Limits of Low Saline Sand-Clay Mixtures. In Geo-Congress 2023, pp. 405-414.
Gleason, M.H., Daniel, D.E., Eykholt, G.R., 1997. Calcium and sodium bentonite for hydraulic containment applications. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 123 (5), 438-445.
Gupta, R.K., Abrol I.P., 1990. Salt affected soils: their reclamation and management for crop production. Advances in Soil Science 11, 224-882.
Horpibulsuk, S., Yangsukkaseam, N., Chinkulkijniwat, A., Du Y.J., 2011. Compressibility and permeability of Bangkok clay compared with kaolinite and bentonite. Applied Clay Sciences 52 (1-2), 150-159.
Kelley, W.P., 1951. Alkali Soils: Their Formation, Properties, and Reclamation (Reinhold Publishing Corporation: New York, N.Y.)
Kim, Y.T., Do, T.H., 2011. Experimental evaluation of leaching effects on the compressibility of marine clay and its strain rate dependency. Marine Georesources and Geotechnology 29 (1), 16-29.
Lambe, T.W., 1953. The structure o f inorganic soil. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 79, 1-49.
Locat, J., Lefebvre, G., 1985. The compressibility and sensitivity of an artificially sedimented clay soil. The Grande‐Baleine Marine Clay, Québec, Canada. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 6, 1-28.
Mansour, Z.M., Taha, M.R., Chik, Z., 2008. Fresh-brine water effect on the basic engineering properties of Lisan Marl-Dead Sea-Jordan. Journal of Applied Sciences 8 (20), 3603-3611. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2008.3603.3611.
Mishra, A.K., Ohtsubo, M., Li, L., Higashi, T., 2005. Effect of salt concentrations on the permeability and compressibility of soil-bentonite mixtures. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture Kyushu University 50 (2), 837-849. https://doi.org/10.5109/4692.
Mishra, A.K., Ohtsubo, M., Li., L.Y., Higashi, T., Park, J., 2009. Effect of salt of various concentrations on liquid limit, and hydraulic conductivity of different soil-bentonite mixtures. Environmental Geology 57, 1145-1153 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1411-0.
Mitchell, J.K., 1956. On the Fabric of Natural Clays. Proceedings of H.R.B. 35.
Mitchell ,J.K., 1993. Fundamentals of soil behavior. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Mitchell, J.K., Soga, K., 2005. Fundamentals of soil behaviour. 3rd edn. John Wiley Hoboken
Moore, R., 1991. The chemical and mineralogical controls upon the residual strength of pure and natural clays. Geotechnique 41 (1), 35-47. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1991.41.1.35.
Northcote, K.H., Sltene, J.K.M., 1972. Australian soils with saline and sodic properties. CSIRO Aust. Soil Publication 27.
Ogata, N., Yasuda, M., Kataoka, T., 1983. Effects of salt concentration on strength and creep behavior of artificially frozen soils. Cold Regions Science and Technology 8 (2), 13,9-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(83)90005-8.
Ohtsubo, M., Takayama, M., Egashira, K., 1982. Marine quick clays from Ariake Bay area, Japan. Soils and Foundations 22 (4), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.22.4_7.
Olson, R.E., Mitronovas, F., 1962. Shear strength and consolidation characteristics of calcium and magnesium illite. Clays and Clay Minerals 9, 185-209. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1960.0090110.
Ören, A.H., Kaya, A., 2003. Some engineering aspects of homoionized mixed clay minerals. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 84 (1-2), 85-98. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022839215231.
Pitman, M.G., Lauchli, A., 2002. Global impact of salinity and agricultural ecosystems. Salinity: Environment - Plants - Molecules pp. 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48155-3_1.
Pupisky, H., Shainberg, I., 1979. Salt effects on the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 43 (3), 429-433.
Rao, S.M., Sridharan, A., Chandrakaran, S., 1993. Consistency limits behavior of bentonites exposed to sea water. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 11 (3), 213-227.
Rosenqvist, I.T., 1955. Investigations in the clay-electrolyte-water system. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
Song, M.M., Zeng, L.L., Hong, Z.S., 2017. Pore fluid salinity effects on physicochemical-compressive behaviour of reconstituted marine clays. Applied Clay Science 146, 270-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.06.015.
Sridharan, A., 1968. Some Studies on the Strength of Partly Saturated Clays. Ph. D. Thesis, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.
Sridharan, A., Rao, G.V., 1973. Mechamisms Controlling the volume Change Behaviour of Saturated clays and the Role of the Effective Stress Concept. Geotechnique 23, 359-382.
Sridharan, A., Rao, G.V., 1975. Mechanisms controlling the liquid limit of clays. In Proceedings of the Istanbul Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Vol. 1, 65-74.
Sridharan, A.S., Rao, M., Murthy, N.S., 1986. Liquid limit of montmorillonitic soils. American Society for Testing and Materials, Geotechnical Testing Journal 9, 156-159.
Sridharan, A., Rao, S.M., Murthy, N.S., 1988. Liquid limit of kaolinitic soils. Géotechnique 38 (2), 191-198.
Sridharan, A., Prakash, K., 1999. Mechanisms controlling the undrained shear strength behaviour of clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36 (6), 1030-1038. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-07.
Sridharan, A., Prakash, K., 2000. Percussion and cone methods of determining the liquid limit of soils: controlling mechanisms. Geotechnical Testing Journal 23 (2), 236-244.
Sridharan, A., El-Shafei, A., Miura, N., 2002. Mechanisms controlling the undrained strength behavior of remolded Ariake marine clays. Marine Georesources and Geotechnology 20 (1), 21-50.
Suarez, D.L., 2001. Sodic soil reclamation: Modelling and field study. Australian Journal of Soil Research 39, 1225-1246.
Sumner, M.E., Rengasamy, P., Naidu, R., 1998. Sodic soils: A reappraisal. In Sodic Soil: Distribution, Management and Environmental Consequences, pp. 3-17.
Tanji, K.K., 1990. Nature and extent of agricultural salinity. In Agricultural Salinity Assessment and Management, Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practices No. 71, pp. 1-17.
Tiwari, B., Tuladhar, G.R, Marui ,H., 2005. Variation in residual shear strength of the so.il with the salinity of pore fluid. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (12), 1445-1456.
Tiwari, B., Ajmera, B., 2014. Effects of saline fluid on compressibility of clay minerals. Environmental Geotechnics 1(2), 108-120.
Warkentin, B.P., 1961. Interpretation of the upper plastic limit of clays. Nature 190, 287-288.
Warkentin, B.P., Yong, R.N., 1962. Shear strength of montmorillonite and kaolinite related to interparticle forces. Clays and Clay Minerals, Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Clays and Clay Minerals 1962, 210-218.
Yong, R.N., Warkentin, B.P., 1966. Introduction to soil behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Yong, R.N., Warkentin, B.P., 1975. Soil Properties and Behavior. New York: Elsevier.
Yong ,R.N., Mohamed, A.M.O., Warkentin, B.P., 1992. Principles of contaminant transport in soils. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 327.
Ying Z., Cui Y.J., Duc M., Benahmed N., Bessaies-Bey H., Chen, B., 2021. Salinity effect on the liquid limit of soils. Acta Geotechnica 16 (4), 1101-1111 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-01092-7.
Yukselen-Aksoy, Y., Kaya, A., Ören, A.H., 2008. Seawater effect on consistency limits and compressibility characteristics of clays. Engineering Geology 102 (1-2), 54-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.07.005.
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