The Dynamics of DDT in Indoor Residual Sprayed Homes in South Africa
Keywords:
Indoor residual spraying, DDT, Exposure, Tukey method, Outside dustAbstract
An assessment of indoor air, indoor dust, and outdoor dust DDT concentration was conducted to assess the lefts of DDT residents in Indoor Residual Sprayed (IRS) areas were potentially exposed to. The study was carried out in Thohoyandou, Vhembe Limpopo at three villages, with one used as a control site. The results for DDT metabolites show that DDT concentrations increased during the spraying period and o,p’-DDE concentrations were highest compared to all other metabolites throughout the sampling period. There is a statistical difference in the mean concentrations of DDT isomers sampled at T0T and the other sampling intervals. o,p’-DDE concentrations also significantly dropped an hour after spraying. The concentrations remained also constant throughout the 84-day sampling period for all other metabolites. Dust concentration indoor were generally low at the two sampled sites, mainly because of the frequent sweeping of huts. Results show that the mean concentrations recorded an hour before sampling are significantly different from mean concentrations from sampling collected and hour and 24 hours after IRS. However outdoor dust recorded similar concentrations and both the sprayed and control site. Soil samples collected at TV and DV outside huts indicate the presence of DDT at both sites. p,p’-DDE concentrations were highest at both sites with concentrations of 16 μg/kg and 14 μg/kg respectively. o,p’-DDT concentrations were lowest at both sites. Samples from both sites displayed very similar results with very little difference in metabolite concentrations. A comparison of air and dust samples showed that air samples had higher levels of DDT and its metabolites with the most significant difference noted in o,p’ DDT and p,p’-DDT concentration. Indoor air recorded a concentration of 1.4 μg/m3 with a concentration of 0.1 μg/m2 being recorded for o,p’-DDT on the dust floor. p,p’-DDT concentration was 2.2 μg/m3 in air and 1.1 μg/m2 on floor dust.
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Sharp, B.L., Le Sueur, D., 1996. Malaria in South Africa: The past, the present and selected implication s for the future. South African Medical Journal 86 (1), 83-89.
Singh, B.K., Walker, A., 2006. Microbial degradation of organophosphorus compounds. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 30, 428-471.
Spencer, W.F., Cliath, M.M., 1972. Volatility of DDT and related compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 20, 645-649.
van Dyk, J.C., Bouwman, H., Barnhoorn, I.E., Bornman, M.S., 2010. DDT contamination from indoor residual spraying for malaria control. Science of The Total Environment 408 (13), 2745-2752.
Wania, F., Mackay, D., 1996. Tracking the distribution of persistent organic pollutants. Environmental Science & Technology 30, 390-396.
Wassie, F., Spanoghe, P., Tessema, D.A., Steurbaut, W., 2012. Exposure and health risk assessment of applicators to DDT during indoor residual spraying in malaria vector control program. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 22, 549-558.
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ATSDR, 2001. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 1,2-Dichloroethane: Toxicological profile. Available at: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts38.pdf.
ATSDR, 2002. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological profile for DDT/DDD/DDE
(update): US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
ATSDR, 2003. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological profile for Fluorides, Hydrogen Fluoride, and Fluorine. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
Berdowski, J.J.M., Baas, J., Bloos, JP.J., Visschedijk, A.J.H., Zandveld, P.Y.J., 1997. The European Atmospheric Emission Inventory for Heavy Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants. Umweltforschungsplan des Bundesministers fur Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit. Luftreinhaltung Forschungbericht 104 02 672/03. TNO, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands.
Blais, J.M., Schindler, D.W., Muir, D.C., Kimpe, L.E., Donald, D.B., Rosenberg, B., 1998. Accumulation of persistent
organochlorine compounds in mountains of western Canada. Nature, 395:585- 588.
Bouviera, G., Blanchard, O., Momas, I., Seta, N., 2006. Environmental and biological monitoring of exposure to
organophosphorus pesticides: application to occupationally and non-occupationally exposed adult populations. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 16 (5), 417- 426.
Bouwman, H., Reinecke, A.J. Cooppan, R.M., Becher, P.J., 1990. Factors affecting levels of DDT and metabolites in human breast milk from Kwa Zulu. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 31, 91e115.
Bouwman, H, Cooppan, R.M., Botha, M.J., Becker P.J., 1991. Serum levels of DDT and liver function of malaria control personnel. South African Medical Journal 79 (3), 326-329.
Bouwman, H., Sereda, B., Meinhardt, H., 2006. Simultaneous presence of DDT and pyrethroid residues in human breast milk from a malaria endemic area in South Africa. Environmental Pollution 144, 902-917.
Bouwman, H., Van den Berg, H., Kylin, H., 2011. DDT and malaria prevention: Addressing the paradox. Environmental Health Perspectives 119 (6), 744-747.
Bouwman, H., 2004. South Africa and the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants. South African Journal of Science 100 (7), 323-328.
Brouwer, D., 2010. Exposure to manufactured nanoparticles in different workplaces. Toxicology 269, 120-127.
Carson, R., 1962. Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Channa, K., Röllin, H.B., Nøst, T.H., Odland, J.Ø., Sandanger, T.M., 2012. Prenatal exposure to DDT in malaria endemic region following indoor residual spraying and in non-malaria coastal regions of South Africa. Science of The Total Environment 429, 183-190.
de Jager, C., Aneck-Hahn, N.H., Bornman, M.S., Farias, P., Leter, G., Eleuteri, P., Rescia, M., Spanò, M., 2009. Sperm chromatin integrity in DDT-exposed young men living in a malaria area in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Human Reproduction 24(10):2429-2438.
de Jager, C., Farias, P., Barraza-Villarreal, A., Avila, M.H., Ayotte, P., Dewailly, E., Dombrowski, C., Rousseau, F., Sanchez, V.D., Bailey, J.L., 2006. Reduced seminal parameters associated with environmental DDT exposure and p,p'‑DDE concentrations in men in Chiapas, Mexico: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Andrology 21, 16-27.
Gyalpo, T., Fritsche, L., Bouwman, H., Bornman, R., Scheringer, M., Hungerbühler, K., 2012. Estimation of human body concentrations of DDT from indoor residual spraying for malaria control. Environmental Pollution 309, 445-453.
Holoubek, I., Klánová, J., Jarkovsky, J., Kohoutek, J., 2007. Trends in background levels of persistent organic pollutants at Kosetice observatory, Czech Republic. Part I. Ambient air and wet deposition 1988–2005. Environmental Monitoring 9, 557-563.
le Sueur, D., Sharp, B.L., Appleton, C.C., 1993. Historical perspective of the malaria problem in Natal with Emphasis on the period 1928-1932. South African Journal of Science 89, 232- 239.
le Sueur, D., Sharp, B.L., Gouws, E., Ngxongo, S., 1996. Malaria in South Africa. South African Medical Journal 8, 936-939.
Longnecker, M. P., Klebanoff, M. A., Dunson, D.B., Guo, X., Chen, Z., Zhou, H., 2005. Maternal serum level of the DDT metabolite DDE in relation to fetal loss in previous pregnancies. Environmental Research 97, 127-133.
Lubkowski, J, Janiak, T, Czerminski, J, Blazejowski, J., 1988. Thermoanalytical investigations of some chloro-organic
pesticides and related compounds.Thermochimica Acta 155, 7-28.
Qiu, X., Zhu, T., Yao, B., Hu, J., Hu, S., 2005. Contribution of dicofol to the current DDT pollution in China. Environmental Science and Technology 39 (12), 4385-4390.
Ritter, R., Scheringer, M., MacLeod, M., Hungerbühler, K., 2011. Assessment of nonoccupational exposure to DDT in the tropics and the north: relevance of uptake via inhalation from indoor residual spraying. Environmental Health Perspectives 119 (5), 707-712.
Ritter, L., Solomon, K.R., Forget, J., 2005. Persistent organic pollutants: An assessment report on DDT, Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene, PCBs, dioxins, and furans. Report for the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC).
Ross, J., Chester, G., Driver, J., Lunchick, C., Holden, L., Rosenheck, L., Barnekow, D., 2008. Comparative evaluation of absorbed dose estimates derived from passive dosimetry measurements to those derived from biological monitoring: validation of exposure monitoring methodologies. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 18, 211-230.
Sharp, B.L., Ngxongo, S., Botha, M.J., Ridl, F., le Sueur, D., 1988. An analysis of 10 years of retrospective malaria data from the KwaZulu areas of Natal. South African Journal of Science 84, 102-106.
Sharp, B.L., Le Sueur, D., 1996. Malaria in South Africa: The past, the present and selected implication s for the future. South African Medical Journal 86 (1), 83-89.
Singh, B.K., Walker, A., 2006. Microbial degradation of organophosphorus compounds. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 30, 428-471.
Spencer, W.F., Cliath, M.M., 1972. Volatility of DDT and related compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 20, 645-649.
van Dyk, J.C., Bouwman, H., Barnhoorn, I.E., Bornman, M.S., 2010. DDT contamination from indoor residual spraying for malaria control. Science of The Total Environment 408 (13), 2745-2752.
Wania, F., Mackay, D., 1996. Tracking the distribution of persistent organic pollutants. Environmental Science & Technology 30, 390-396.
Wassie, F., Spanoghe, P., Tessema, D.A., Steurbaut, W., 2012. Exposure and health risk assessment of applicators to DDT during indoor residual spraying in malaria vector control program. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 22, 549-558.
WHO, 2001. Mental health: new understanding, new hope. World Health Report World Health Organization 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.
WHO, 2006. Equipment for vector control: Specification guidelines. Department of Control of Neglected Tropical
Diseases, WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES).
WHO, 2007. Manual for indoor residual spraying. Application of residual sprays for vector control, 3rd Ed. World Health Organization, Vector Ecology and Management, WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme, Geneva.
WHO, 2009. Protecting health from climate change: connecting science, policy and people. World Health Organization Avenue Appia 20 CH - 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.
WHO, 2010a. World Health Organization: Bifenthrin, 2- methylbiphenyl-3-ylmethyl (Z)-(1RS,3RS)-3-(2-chloro-3,3,3-
trifluoroprop-1-enyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-carboxylate. WHO specifications and evaluations for public health pesticides. World Health Organization Geneva; 2010, 1-39.
WHO, 2010b. World Health Organization: Deltamethrin, (S)-α- cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl (1R,3R)-3-(2,2-dibromovinyl)-2,2- dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate. WHO specifications and evaluations for public health pesticides. World Health Organization, Geneva; 1-72.
WHO, 2011. World Health Organization: Use of DDT in malaria vector control, WHO position statement. Document WHO/HTM/GMP/2011, 1-9.
Wolfe, H.R., Walker, K.C., Elliott, J.W., Durham, W.F., 1959. Evaluation of the health hazards involved in house-spraying with DDT. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 20, 1-14.
Wolfe, N.L., Zepp, R.G., Paris, D.F., Baughman, G.L., Hollis, R.C., 1977. Methoxychlor and DDT degradation in water: rates and products. Environmental Science & Technology 11, 1077-1081.
Wolff, M.S., Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, A., Dubin, N., Toniolo, P., 2000a. Risk of breast cancer and organochlorine exposure. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention 9, 271-277.
Wolff, M.S., Berkowitz, G.S., Brower, S., Senie, R., Bleiweiss, I.J., Tartter, P., Pace, B., Roy, N., Wallenstein, S., Weston, A., 2000b. Organochlorine exposures and breast cancer risk in New York City women. Environmental Research 84, 151-161.
Wolff, M.S., Toniolo, P.G., Lee, E.W., Rivera, M., Dubin, N., 1993. Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 85, 648-652.
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