Stockholm Conference to Kyoto Protocol – A Review of Climate Change Mitigation Initiatives
Keywords:
Global environment, Fossil fuel, Greenhouse gasses, Anthropogenic activities, Kyoto Protocol, Clean development mechanismAbstract
The journey from the Stockholm Conference to Kyoto Protocol has been long, whereby the moot point has been to raise awareness and implement policies that would improve the global environment by reducing greenhouse gasses (GHGs). Over the past few decades, apart from some irradiative forces owing to anthropogenic activities, climate change is a stark reality today, endangering the Earth's environment. The Stockholm conference was the first earth summit conceived by the United Nations at Stockholm way back in 1972; the focus was on the conservation and development of the human race and environment. Ever since, several summits on environmental protection have been held, focusing on raising awareness while implementing policies with well-defined objectives aiming to achieve feasible output in reducing the burning of fossil fuel and minimizing the output of GHGs through a mechanism called clean development mechanism (CDM). The concept of CDM came into vogue during the Kyoto Protocol, which was signed in December 1997, and was only effectuated in February 2005. The Kyoto protocol under UNFCCC is a well-defined policy and framework by which one could assess the actual implementation of GHG concentration reduction in the atmosphere. This paper presents the chronology of the progress and the latest status of an agenda and policy that was initiated during the Stockholm conference and was given a structure at the Kyoto protocol.
References
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Capoor, K., Ambrosi, P., 2007. State and trends of the carbon market 2007. World Bank. Washington DC.
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Crowley, T.J., 2000. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years. Science 289 (5477), 270-277.
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Driesen, D.M., 2008. Sustainable development and market liberalism's shotgun wedding: Emissions trading under the Kyoto Protocol. Ind. LJ, 83, 21.
Dufresne, J.L., Foujols, M.A., Denvil, S., Caubel, A., Marti, O., Aumont, O., Bony, S., 2013. Climate change projections using the IPSL-CM5 Earth System Model: from CMIP3 to CMIP5. Climate Dynamics, 40(9-10), 2123-2165.
EDGARv4.2, 1990. European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. EDGAR’s Global Fossil CO2 Emissions from 1990 to 2016 (EDGARv4.3.2_FT2016 dataset).
Ellis, J., Winkler, H., Corfee-Morlot, J., Gagnon-Lebrun, F., 2007. CDM: Taking stock and looking forward. Energy Policy 35 (1), 15-28.
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Gray, M.A., 1990. The United Nations Environment Programme: An Assessment. Environmental Law 20 (2), 291-319.
Halvorssen, A.M., 2007. Common, but differentiated commitments in the future climate change regime-amending the Kyoto Protocol to include Annex C and the Annex C mitigation fund. Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 18 (2), 247-266.
Handl, G., 2012. Declaration of the United Nations conference on the human environment (Stockholm Declaration), 1972 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992. United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, 11.
Harmsen, H., 2018. Effectiveness of UNFCCC in addressing climate change. Technical Report February, WMI, Nairobi.
Helm, C. 2003. International emissions trading with endogenous allowance choices. Journal of Public Economics 87 (12), 2737-2747.
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Joyner, C.C., Joyner, N.D., 1974. Global Eco_management and International Organizations: The Stockholm Conference and Problems of Cooperation. Natural Resources Journal 14 (4), 533-555.
Keeble, B.R., 1987. The Brundtland Commission: environment and development to the year 2000. Medicine and war, 3(4), 207-210.
Keeble, B.R., 1988. The Brundtland Report:‘Our common future’. Medicine and War 4 (1), 17-25.
Keenlyside, N.S., Latif, M., Jungclaus, J., Kornblueh, L., Roeckner, E., 2008. Advancing decadal-scale climate prediction in the North Atlantic sector. Nature 453 (7191), 84-88.
Koester, V., 1990. From Stockholm to Brundtland. Environmental Policy and Law 20, 14.
Lau, L.C., Lee, K.T., Mohamed, A.R., 2012. Global warming mitigation and renewable energy policy development from the Kyoto Protocol to the Copenhagen Accord – A Comment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (7), 5280-5284.
Lau, L.C., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Mohamed, A.R., 2009. A comparative study on the energy policies in Japan and Malaysia in fulfilling their nations’ obligations towards the Kyoto Protocol. Energy Policy 37 (11), 4771-4778.
Leonard, H. J., Morell, D., 1981. Emergence of environmental concern in developing countries: a political perspective. Stan. J. Int'l L., 17, 281.
Linnér, B. O., Jacob, M., 2005. From Stockholm to Kyoto and beyond: a review of the globalization of global warming policy and north–south relations. Globalizations 2 (3), 403-415.
Matthews, H. D., Weaver, A. J., Meissner, K. J., Gillett, N. P., & Eby, M., 2004. Natural and anthropogenic climate change: incorporating historical land cover change, vegetation dynamics and the global carbon cycle. Climate Dynamics, 22(5), 461-479.
Mazo, J., 2009. Chapter five: Climate change and security. The Adelphi Papers 49 (409), 119-136.
Meehl, G. A., Washington, W. M., Collins, W. D., Arblaster, J. M., Hu, A., Buja, L. E., Teng, H., 2005. How much more global warming and sea level rise? Science 307 (5716), 1769-1772.
Moritz, C., Agudo, R., 2013. The future of species under climate change: resilience or decline? Science 341 (6145), 504-508.
Myhre, G., Aas, W., Cherian, R., Collins, W., Faluvegi, G., Flanner, M., Mülmenstädt, J., 2017. Multi-model simulations of aerosol and ozone radiative forcing due to anthropogenic emission changes during the period 1990–2015. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 17 (4), 2709-2720.
Philibert, C., Pershing, J., Gray, K., 2002. Beyond Kyoto: energy dynamics and climate stabilisation. OECD/International Energy Agency.
Rajamani, L., 2003. From Stockholm to Johannesburg: The anatomy of dissonance in the international environmental dialogue. Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 12 (1), 23-32.
Ripple, W.J., Wolf, C., Newsome, T.M., Galetti, M., Alamgir, M., Crist, E., 2017. World scientists’ warning to humanity: a second notice. BioScience 67 (12), 1026-1028.
Rocha, M., Krapp, M., Guetschow, J., Jeffery, L., Hare, B., Schaeffer, M., 2015. Historical Responsibility for Climate Change–from countries emissions to contribution to temperature increase. Climate Analytics and Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research: Potsdam, Germany.
Rockström, J., Steffen, W.L., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin III, F.S., Lambin, E., Nykvist, B., 2009. Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society 14 (2), 32.
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin III, F.S., Lambin, E. F., Nykvist, B., 2009. A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461 (7263), 472.
Samaniego, J., Figueres, C., 2002. Evolving to a sector-based Clean Development Mechanism. KA Baumert, O. Blanchard, Llose and JF Perkaus (Editors), Options for protecting the climate. WRI, Washington.
Seyfang, G., 2003. Environmental mega-conferences - from Stockholm to Johannesburg and beyond. Global Environmental Change 13 (3), 223-228.
Shelton, D., 2008. Stockholm Declaration (1972) and Rio Declaration (1992). Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law.
Sohn, L.B., 1973. Stockholm declaration on the human environment. Harvard International Law Journal 14, 423-515.
Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S.E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E.M., Sörlin, S., 2015. Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347 (6223).
Stephan, H., Zelli, F., 2007. International Organizations and the Global Environment. in "The Politics of the Environment" Ed. Okereke, C., London.
Sutter, C., Parreño, J.C., 2007. Does the current Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) deliver its sustainable development claim? An analysis of officially registered CDM projects. Climatic Change 84 (1), 75-90.
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. Kyoto and Beyond. Issues and Options in the Global Response to Climate Change,” Stockholm.
Uddin, N., Blommerde, M., Taplin, R., Laurence, D., 2015. Sustainable development outcomes of coal mine methane clean development mechanism Projects in China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 45, 1-9.
Wang, Z., Lin, L., Zhang, X., Zhang, H., Liu, L., Xu, Y., 2017. Scenario dependence of future changes in climate extremes under 1.5 C and 2 C global warming. Scientific Reports 7, 46432.
Wiser, G., 2002. Frontiers in trade: the clean development mechanism and the general agreement on trade in services. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues 2 (3-4), 288-309.
Woerdman, E., 2000. Implementing the Kyoto protocol: why JI and CDM show more promise than international emissions trading. Energy Policy 28 (1), 29-38.
Wohlgemuth, N., Missfeldt, F., 2000. The Kyoto mechanisms and the prospects for renewable energy technologies. Solar Energy 69 (4), 305-314.
York, R., Rosa, E. A., Dietz, T., 2003. A rift in modernity? Assessing the anthropogenic sources of global climate change with the STIRPAT model. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 23 (10), 31-51.
Zainuddin, Z. B., Zailani, S., Govindan, K., Iranmanesh, M., Amran, A., 2017. Determinants and outcome of a clean development mechanism in Malaysia. Journal of Cleaner Production 142, 1979-1986.
Baer, P., Mastrandrea, M., 2006. High stakes-designing emissions pathways to reduce the risk of dangerous climate change.
Barrett, S., 2003. Environment and statecraft: The strategy of environmental treaty-making: The strategy of environmental treaty-making. OUP Oxford.
Blanchard, O., Baumert, K.A., Perkaus, J.F., Llosa, S., 2002. Building on the Kyoto Protocol: Options for Protecting the Climate, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC
Bekiashev, K.A., Serebriakov, V.V., 1981. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). In International Marine Organizations (pp. 540-552). Springer, Dordrecht.
Bolin, B., 1991. The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC). In Proceedings of the Second World Climate Conference (pp. 19-21).
Borowy, I., 2013. Defining sustainable development for our common future: A history of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission). Routledge.
Burton, I., 1987. Report on reports: Our common future: The world commission on environment and development. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 29 (5), 25-29.
Campbell, T.E., 1973. The Political Meaning of Stockholm: Third World Participation in the Environment Conference Process. Stan. J. Int'l Stud., 8, 138.
Capoor, K., Ambrosi, P., 2007. State and trends of the carbon market 2007. World Bank. Washington DC.
Conca, K., 1995. Greening the United Nations: Environmental organizations and the UN system. Third World Quarterly 16 (3), 441-458.
Crowley, T.J., 2000. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years. Science 289 (5477), 270-277.
Declaration, R., 1992. Rio declaration on environment and development. Centre for Our Common Future, 52, rue des Paquis, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland.
Driesen, D.M., 2008. Sustainable development and market liberalism's shotgun wedding: Emissions trading under the Kyoto Protocol. Ind. LJ, 83, 21.
Dufresne, J.L., Foujols, M.A., Denvil, S., Caubel, A., Marti, O., Aumont, O., Bony, S., 2013. Climate change projections using the IPSL-CM5 Earth System Model: from CMIP3 to CMIP5. Climate Dynamics, 40(9-10), 2123-2165.
EDGARv4.2, 1990. European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. EDGAR’s Global Fossil CO2 Emissions from 1990 to 2016 (EDGARv4.3.2_FT2016 dataset).
Ellis, J., Winkler, H., Corfee-Morlot, J., Gagnon-Lebrun, F., 2007. CDM: Taking stock and looking forward. Energy Policy 35 (1), 15-28.
Fossil, 2018. Fossil CO2 emissions of all world countries - 2018 Report, EUR 29433 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2018, ISBN 978-92-79-97240-9, doi:10.2760/30158, JRC113738.
Foster, G.L., Royer, D.L., Lunt, D.J., 2017. Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years. Nature Communications 8, 14845.
French, H.F., Hagerman, E., Ryan, M., 1992. After the Earth Summit: the future of environmental governance (Vol. 107). Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
Galaz, V., Biermann, F., Folke, C., Nilsson, M., Olsson, P., 2012. Global environmental governance and planetary boundaries: An introduction.
Gray, M.A., 1990. The United Nations Environment Programme: An Assessment. Environmental Law 20 (2), 291-319.
Halvorssen, A.M., 2007. Common, but differentiated commitments in the future climate change regime-amending the Kyoto Protocol to include Annex C and the Annex C mitigation fund. Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 18 (2), 247-266.
Handl, G., 2012. Declaration of the United Nations conference on the human environment (Stockholm Declaration), 1972 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992. United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, 11.
Harmsen, H., 2018. Effectiveness of UNFCCC in addressing climate change. Technical Report February, WMI, Nairobi.
Helm, C. 2003. International emissions trading with endogenous allowance choices. Journal of Public Economics 87 (12), 2737-2747.
Hens, L., 2005. The rio declaration on environment and development. Regional sustainable development review: Africa. Oxford, UK, Eolss Publishers.
Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y.D.J.G., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P.J., Dai, X., Johnson, C.A., 2001. Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Joyner, C.C., Joyner, N.D., 1974. Global Eco_management and International Organizations: The Stockholm Conference and Problems of Cooperation. Natural Resources Journal 14 (4), 533-555.
Keeble, B.R., 1987. The Brundtland Commission: environment and development to the year 2000. Medicine and war, 3(4), 207-210.
Keeble, B.R., 1988. The Brundtland Report:‘Our common future’. Medicine and War 4 (1), 17-25.
Keenlyside, N.S., Latif, M., Jungclaus, J., Kornblueh, L., Roeckner, E., 2008. Advancing decadal-scale climate prediction in the North Atlantic sector. Nature 453 (7191), 84-88.
Koester, V., 1990. From Stockholm to Brundtland. Environmental Policy and Law 20, 14.
Lau, L.C., Lee, K.T., Mohamed, A.R., 2012. Global warming mitigation and renewable energy policy development from the Kyoto Protocol to the Copenhagen Accord – A Comment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (7), 5280-5284.
Lau, L.C., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Mohamed, A.R., 2009. A comparative study on the energy policies in Japan and Malaysia in fulfilling their nations’ obligations towards the Kyoto Protocol. Energy Policy 37 (11), 4771-4778.
Leonard, H. J., Morell, D., 1981. Emergence of environmental concern in developing countries: a political perspective. Stan. J. Int'l L., 17, 281.
Linnér, B. O., Jacob, M., 2005. From Stockholm to Kyoto and beyond: a review of the globalization of global warming policy and north–south relations. Globalizations 2 (3), 403-415.
Matthews, H. D., Weaver, A. J., Meissner, K. J., Gillett, N. P., & Eby, M., 2004. Natural and anthropogenic climate change: incorporating historical land cover change, vegetation dynamics and the global carbon cycle. Climate Dynamics, 22(5), 461-479.
Mazo, J., 2009. Chapter five: Climate change and security. The Adelphi Papers 49 (409), 119-136.
Meehl, G. A., Washington, W. M., Collins, W. D., Arblaster, J. M., Hu, A., Buja, L. E., Teng, H., 2005. How much more global warming and sea level rise? Science 307 (5716), 1769-1772.
Moritz, C., Agudo, R., 2013. The future of species under climate change: resilience or decline? Science 341 (6145), 504-508.
Myhre, G., Aas, W., Cherian, R., Collins, W., Faluvegi, G., Flanner, M., Mülmenstädt, J., 2017. Multi-model simulations of aerosol and ozone radiative forcing due to anthropogenic emission changes during the period 1990–2015. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 17 (4), 2709-2720.
Philibert, C., Pershing, J., Gray, K., 2002. Beyond Kyoto: energy dynamics and climate stabilisation. OECD/International Energy Agency.
Rajamani, L., 2003. From Stockholm to Johannesburg: The anatomy of dissonance in the international environmental dialogue. Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 12 (1), 23-32.
Ripple, W.J., Wolf, C., Newsome, T.M., Galetti, M., Alamgir, M., Crist, E., 2017. World scientists’ warning to humanity: a second notice. BioScience 67 (12), 1026-1028.
Rocha, M., Krapp, M., Guetschow, J., Jeffery, L., Hare, B., Schaeffer, M., 2015. Historical Responsibility for Climate Change–from countries emissions to contribution to temperature increase. Climate Analytics and Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research: Potsdam, Germany.
Rockström, J., Steffen, W.L., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin III, F.S., Lambin, E., Nykvist, B., 2009. Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society 14 (2), 32.
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin III, F.S., Lambin, E. F., Nykvist, B., 2009. A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461 (7263), 472.
Samaniego, J., Figueres, C., 2002. Evolving to a sector-based Clean Development Mechanism. KA Baumert, O. Blanchard, Llose and JF Perkaus (Editors), Options for protecting the climate. WRI, Washington.
Seyfang, G., 2003. Environmental mega-conferences - from Stockholm to Johannesburg and beyond. Global Environmental Change 13 (3), 223-228.
Shelton, D., 2008. Stockholm Declaration (1972) and Rio Declaration (1992). Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law.
Sohn, L.B., 1973. Stockholm declaration on the human environment. Harvard International Law Journal 14, 423-515.
Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S.E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E.M., Sörlin, S., 2015. Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347 (6223).
Stephan, H., Zelli, F., 2007. International Organizations and the Global Environment. in "The Politics of the Environment" Ed. Okereke, C., London.
Sutter, C., Parreño, J.C., 2007. Does the current Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) deliver its sustainable development claim? An analysis of officially registered CDM projects. Climatic Change 84 (1), 75-90.
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. Kyoto and Beyond. Issues and Options in the Global Response to Climate Change,” Stockholm.
Uddin, N., Blommerde, M., Taplin, R., Laurence, D., 2015. Sustainable development outcomes of coal mine methane clean development mechanism Projects in China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 45, 1-9.
Wang, Z., Lin, L., Zhang, X., Zhang, H., Liu, L., Xu, Y., 2017. Scenario dependence of future changes in climate extremes under 1.5 C and 2 C global warming. Scientific Reports 7, 46432.
Wiser, G., 2002. Frontiers in trade: the clean development mechanism and the general agreement on trade in services. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues 2 (3-4), 288-309.
Woerdman, E., 2000. Implementing the Kyoto protocol: why JI and CDM show more promise than international emissions trading. Energy Policy 28 (1), 29-38.
Wohlgemuth, N., Missfeldt, F., 2000. The Kyoto mechanisms and the prospects for renewable energy technologies. Solar Energy 69 (4), 305-314.
York, R., Rosa, E. A., Dietz, T., 2003. A rift in modernity? Assessing the anthropogenic sources of global climate change with the STIRPAT model. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 23 (10), 31-51.
Zainuddin, Z. B., Zailani, S., Govindan, K., Iranmanesh, M., Amran, A., 2017. Determinants and outcome of a clean development mechanism in Malaysia. Journal of Cleaner Production 142, 1979-1986.
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