Quarrying and Land Degradation in Nyakach Sub County, Kenya
Keywords:
Geomorphic agents, Land degradation, Quarrying, Reference state analysis, Sand budget analysis
Abstract
Land degradation is a problem facing humanity on earth today as it threatens food security as well as viable land use activities. This study considered quarrying as a form of land degradation using human beings as geomorphic agents. The study established the extent of quarrying effects on land degradation on land use activities such as agriculture, transportation and biodiversity. The indicators of land degradation were soil erosion marked by presence of gullies, sand budget analysis and reference state analysis. The study used cross sectional study and quasi-experimental research designs involving measurement of gully dimensions, sand budget and reference state analysis of drainage channels. GPRS technology from window’s tablet with Google earth software (CNES/Airbus, 2018) was used for capturing spatial data. The results were: gullies were cascaded all over the area with an average depth of 3.9m reducing portions of agricultural and grazing lands as well as cut transport lines. Reference state analysis showed that neem plant and monitor lizards species peculiar to the drainage channels in Nyakach are endangered. Sand budget analysis showed 5,118t and 8,986t of sand were appropriated during dry and wet seasons respectively with an annual gravel loss of 0.0128t/Km2 or 3.6t/Ha. equivalent to 9935.5t/y. Consequently, riparian and farmlands were invaded during dry seasons causing major degradation. The study recommends: terracing, building of gabions, afforestation and adoption of alternative land use activities to control land degradation.
References
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KCIDP, 2017. Kisumu County Integrated Development Plan (KCIDP) Retrieved from: www.kisumu.go.ke>2018/11>ki...
Kisumu County Revenue Office, 2018. Data on sand sales (tons) for Nyakach Sub County, Kisumu County, Kenya.
Kodiwo, M.O., Otieno, C.A., Okere, F.A.A., 2019. Effects of Different Crops and Crop Farming Practices on Soil Degradation in Nyakach Sub-County, Kenya.
Lameed, G.A., Ayodele, A.E., 2010. Effects of quarrying activity on bio-diversity: Case study of Ogbere site, Ogun State, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 4 (11), 740-750.
Legwaila, I.A., Lange, E., Cripps, J., 2015. Quarry reclamation in England. A review of techniques. Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation 4 (2), 55-79.
Mabogunje, A.L., 2008. The Challenges of Mobility within Nigeria’s Emerging Megacities. In Keynote Address Delivered at Maiden Annual Conference on Public Transport, Ikeja, in May pp. 6-8.
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Maurice, K., Ang’awa, F., 2012. Analysis of Spatial and temporal Changes and the Correlation between Agricultural Land Use Intensity and Land Degradation, Bondo University, Kenya.
Mbandi, I.J., 2017. Assessment of the environmental impacts of quarrying in Kitengela Sub County of Kajiado Kenya. The university of Nairobi, Kenya.
Megahan, W.F., Ketcheson, G.L., 1996. Predicting downslope travel of granitic sediments from forest road in Idaho. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 32 (2), 371-382. Doi: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.1996.tb03459.x.
Menta, C., 2012. Soil fauna diversity-function, soil degradation, biological indices, soil restoration. Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in A Diverse World. IntechOpen Book Series.
Mkhonta, M., 2000. Use of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) in the assessment of soil erosion in the Gwayimane and Mahku catchment areas with special attention on soil erodibility (K-Factor). Msc, ITC, Enschede.
Mugedeza, C., 1996. Southern Africa economy: Mining’s Unseen Hands, ANC Daily News Briefing, Friday 22 November1996. Retrieved from: http://www.anc.org/za.anc/newsbrief/1996.
Musa, J.A., 2009. Assessment of Sociological and Ecological Impacts of Sand and Gravel Mining. A Case Study of East Gonja District (Ghana) and Gunnarsholt (Iceland). Environmental Protection Agency, Northern Region, Ghana. Environmental and Infrastructural Consultant, VSO Consulting, Reykjavic, Iceland.
Mwangi, S.N., 2014. An assessment of environmental activities in Ndarugo area, Kiambu County, Kenya.
Mwaura, S.K., 2013. The Effects of Sand Harvesting on Economic Growth in Kenya with a case study of Machakos County: International Journal of Sciences and Entrepreneurship 1 (5), 342-350.
Nanna, S., 1996. A Geo-Information Theoretical Approach to Inductive Erosion Modeling Based on Terrain Mapping Units. PhD Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
NEPRK, 2013. National Environment Policy, Republic of Kenya 2013. Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Nairobi, Kenya.
Nyakeniga, C.A., 2009. An assessment of environmental impact on stone quarrying activities in Nyambera location, Kisii, County. A research project report submitted to Kenyatta University.
Olang, L.O., Fürst, J., 2011. Effects of land cover change on flood peak discharges and runoff volumes: model estimates for the Nyando River Basin, Kenya. Hydrological Processes 25 (1), 80-89.
Penck, W., 1953. Morphological Analysis of Land Forms: A Contribution to Physical Geology. Macmillan and Company, London.
Salifu, B., 2017. Implications of Sand Mining on the Environment and Livelihoods in Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. A Thesis submitted to the Department of Geography and Rural Development, Kwame Nkurumah University of Science and Technology in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of Master of Philosophy in Geography and Rural Development.
Schaffler, A., Swilling, M., 2013. Valuing green infrastructure in an urban environment under pressure - The Johannesburg case. Ecological Economics 86, 246-257.
Schmidt, J., Werther, L., Zielhifer, C., 2018. Shaping pre-modern digital terrain models: the former topography at Charlmagnes canal construction site. Plos One 13 (7), e0200167 (1-21). Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200167.
Shackleton, R.M., 1951. A contribution to the Geology of Kavirondo Rift Valley. Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society 107, 336-337.
Simons, M., 1962. The Morphological Analysis of Landforms: A new review of the work of Walther Penck (1888-1923). Transaction and Papers (Institute of British Geographers) 31, 1-14.
Wang Z., Gu, W., Liang, T., Liu J., Zu J., Liu X., 2016. Blasting Vibration Generated by Breaking-Blasting Large Barriers with EBBLB. Shock and Vibration 2016, 7503872 (1-13). Doi: 10.1155/2016/7503872.
Weber, C., 2008. Theory of technical systems (TTS)- its role for design theory and methodology and challenges in the future. DS 57: Proceedings of AEDS 2008 Workshop, Pilsen, Czech Republic.
World Bank, 2012. Inclusive Green Growth. The Pathway to Sustainable Development. Washington, DC, USA.
Anunda, C.N., 2014. An assessment of environmental impacts of stone quarrying activities in Nyambera location in Kisii County, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
Akanwa, A., Onwuemesi, F., Chukwurah, G., 2016. Effects of open cast quarrying technique on the vegetation cover and the environment in South Eastern Nigeria. American Scientific Research Journal of Engineering, Technology and Sciences (ASRJETS) 21 (1), 227-240.
Banez, J., Ajon, S.M., Bilolo, J.R., Dailyn, J.M., 2010. Report onQuarrying and its Environmental Effects. Bicol University, Philippines.
Bertalanffy, L.V., 1969. General System Theory (Foundations, Development and Applications). George Braziller Inc., New York.
CNES/Airbus, 2018. Google Earth Image. Image data: @ 2018 CNES/Airbus & Digital Globe Image Recording.
Corey, J.A.B., Navjot, S.S., Kevin, S-H.P., Barry, W.B., 2007. Global evidences that deforestation amplifies flood risk and severity in the developing world. Global Change Biology 13 (11), 2379-2395. Doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.0144.x.
Creswell, J.W., Clark, V.L.P., 2006. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, California.
Darwish, T., Khater, C., Joma, I., Stehouwer, R, Shaban, A., Hamze, M., 2011. Environmental impacts of quarries on natural resources in Lebanon. Land Degradation and Development 22 (3), 345-358. Doi: 10.1002/ldr.1011.
Dávid, L., 2000. Landscape protection, management and regional development on stone quarrying as a geomorphic activity based on example from Matra Mountains. Unpublished PhD dissertations, University of Debreceni, Debreceni Egyetem, Hungary.
Davis, W.M., 1899. The geographical cycle. Geographical Journa, 14, 481-504.
D’Costa, V., Ominde, H.S., 1973. Soil and land-use survey of the Kano Plain-Nyanza Province-Kenya. Department of Geography, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Dreschler, B., 2001. Small-scale Mining and Sustainable Development within SADC Region. Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), England.
Fedra, K, Winkelbauer, Pantulu, R.V., 1991. Systems for Environmental Screening. An Application in the Lower Mekong Basin. Report No: RR-91-19. International Institute for Applied System Analysis. A-2361 Luxemburg, Austria.
Folle, S., Mulla, D.J., 2009. Modelling upland vs. Channel Source of Sediment in the Le Sueur River Watershed, Minnesota. Fifth International SWAT Conference. Boulder Co., Colorado.
Foltz, R.B., Rauch, K.S., Burroughs, E.R. Jr., 1991. Hydraulic roughness and sediment yield in wheel ruts on forest roads. In: Proceedings of Hydraulic Engineering 1991 EE, IR, WW Div./ASCE National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering; 1991 July 29-August 2; Nashville, TN. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1108-1113.
Foody, G.M., Ghoneim, E.M., Arnell, N.W., 2004. Predicting locations sensitive to flash flooding in an arid environment. Journal of Hydrology 292 (1-4), 48-58.
Fredriksen, R.L., 1970. Erosion and sedimentation following road construction and timber harvesting on unstable soils on three small Western Oregon Watersheds. USDA Forest Service Research Paper PNW-104. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Forest Service, Portland, Oregon U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Goddard, J., 2007. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation. Sydney: University of South Wales Press.
Google Earth, 2019. Maxar-Technologies CNES/Airbus (2018): Retrieved from: www.maxar.com>satelite. High Resolution Satellite Imagery-Maxar Technologies. Accessed on 12th May, 2019.
GoK, 2010. Mining report of 2010, Government of Kenya. Guadagno, F. M., Revellino, P., 2005. Debris avalanches and debris flows of the Campania Region (southern Italy). In: Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena (pp. 489-518). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Haule, H., Ringo, J., Luvinga, K., Kawonga, S., Mayengo, G., Morsardi, L., 2016. Effects of limestone mining on deforestation and land degradation in Mbeya Region, Tanzania. International Journal of Modern Social Sciences 5 (2), 117-132.
Hill, L., Kleynrans, C.J., 1999. Authorization and Licensing of Sand Mining/Gravel Extraction, in terms of Impacts on Instream and Riparian Habitats. Journal of Mining Science 15, 17-19.
Hull, R.B., Robertson, D.P., Kendra, A., 2001. Public understandings of nature: A case study of local knowledge about" natural" forest conditions. Society & Natural Resources 14 (4), 325-340.
Imoru, A., 2010. The Impact of Gravel, Sand Mining on Communities in Northern Region. The Advocate posted by
Rural Media Network (Rumnet) 2010 Edition.
Iqbal, M.Z, Shafig, M., 2001. Periodic effects of cement dust pollution on the growth of some plant species. Turkish Journal of Botany 25 (1), 19-24.
Karancsi, Z., 1999. Topology of land forms originating from stone quarrying. Retrieved from: https://phd.ini.hu. CD-ROM.
Kavilu, S., 2016. Kenya’s illegal sand miners destroy farms to plunder scarce resources. Retrieved from: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-landrights-sandmining-idUSKCN126116.
KCIDP, 2017. Kisumu County Integrated Development Plan (KCIDP) Retrieved from: www.kisumu.go.ke>2018/11>ki...
Kisumu County Revenue Office, 2018. Data on sand sales (tons) for Nyakach Sub County, Kisumu County, Kenya.
Kodiwo, M.O., Otieno, C.A., Okere, F.A.A., 2019. Effects of Different Crops and Crop Farming Practices on Soil Degradation in Nyakach Sub-County, Kenya.
Lameed, G.A., Ayodele, A.E., 2010. Effects of quarrying activity on bio-diversity: Case study of Ogbere site, Ogun State, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 4 (11), 740-750.
Legwaila, I.A., Lange, E., Cripps, J., 2015. Quarry reclamation in England. A review of techniques. Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation 4 (2), 55-79.
Mabogunje, A.L., 2008. The Challenges of Mobility within Nigeria’s Emerging Megacities. In Keynote Address Delivered at Maiden Annual Conference on Public Transport, Ikeja, in May pp. 6-8.
Makweba, M.M, Ndonde, P.B., 1996. The mineral sector and the national environmental policy. In: Mwandosya MJ, et al., editors. Proceedings of the workshop on the national environmental policy for Tanzania (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania), p. 73-164.
Maurice, K., Ang’awa, F., 2012. Analysis of Spatial and temporal Changes and the Correlation between Agricultural Land Use Intensity and Land Degradation, Bondo University, Kenya.
Mbandi, I.J., 2017. Assessment of the environmental impacts of quarrying in Kitengela Sub County of Kajiado Kenya. The university of Nairobi, Kenya.
Megahan, W.F., Ketcheson, G.L., 1996. Predicting downslope travel of granitic sediments from forest road in Idaho. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 32 (2), 371-382. Doi: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.1996.tb03459.x.
Menta, C., 2012. Soil fauna diversity-function, soil degradation, biological indices, soil restoration. Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in A Diverse World. IntechOpen Book Series.
Mkhonta, M., 2000. Use of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) in the assessment of soil erosion in the Gwayimane and Mahku catchment areas with special attention on soil erodibility (K-Factor). Msc, ITC, Enschede.
Mugedeza, C., 1996. Southern Africa economy: Mining’s Unseen Hands, ANC Daily News Briefing, Friday 22 November1996. Retrieved from: http://www.anc.org/za.anc/newsbrief/1996.
Musa, J.A., 2009. Assessment of Sociological and Ecological Impacts of Sand and Gravel Mining. A Case Study of East Gonja District (Ghana) and Gunnarsholt (Iceland). Environmental Protection Agency, Northern Region, Ghana. Environmental and Infrastructural Consultant, VSO Consulting, Reykjavic, Iceland.
Mwangi, S.N., 2014. An assessment of environmental activities in Ndarugo area, Kiambu County, Kenya.
Mwaura, S.K., 2013. The Effects of Sand Harvesting on Economic Growth in Kenya with a case study of Machakos County: International Journal of Sciences and Entrepreneurship 1 (5), 342-350.
Nanna, S., 1996. A Geo-Information Theoretical Approach to Inductive Erosion Modeling Based on Terrain Mapping Units. PhD Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
NEPRK, 2013. National Environment Policy, Republic of Kenya 2013. Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Nairobi, Kenya.
Nyakeniga, C.A., 2009. An assessment of environmental impact on stone quarrying activities in Nyambera location, Kisii, County. A research project report submitted to Kenyatta University.
Olang, L.O., Fürst, J., 2011. Effects of land cover change on flood peak discharges and runoff volumes: model estimates for the Nyando River Basin, Kenya. Hydrological Processes 25 (1), 80-89.
Penck, W., 1953. Morphological Analysis of Land Forms: A Contribution to Physical Geology. Macmillan and Company, London.
Salifu, B., 2017. Implications of Sand Mining on the Environment and Livelihoods in Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. A Thesis submitted to the Department of Geography and Rural Development, Kwame Nkurumah University of Science and Technology in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of Master of Philosophy in Geography and Rural Development.
Schaffler, A., Swilling, M., 2013. Valuing green infrastructure in an urban environment under pressure - The Johannesburg case. Ecological Economics 86, 246-257.
Schmidt, J., Werther, L., Zielhifer, C., 2018. Shaping pre-modern digital terrain models: the former topography at Charlmagnes canal construction site. Plos One 13 (7), e0200167 (1-21). Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200167.
Shackleton, R.M., 1951. A contribution to the Geology of Kavirondo Rift Valley. Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society 107, 336-337.
Simons, M., 1962. The Morphological Analysis of Landforms: A new review of the work of Walther Penck (1888-1923). Transaction and Papers (Institute of British Geographers) 31, 1-14.
Wang Z., Gu, W., Liang, T., Liu J., Zu J., Liu X., 2016. Blasting Vibration Generated by Breaking-Blasting Large Barriers with EBBLB. Shock and Vibration 2016, 7503872 (1-13). Doi: 10.1155/2016/7503872.
Weber, C., 2008. Theory of technical systems (TTS)- its role for design theory and methodology and challenges in the future. DS 57: Proceedings of AEDS 2008 Workshop, Pilsen, Czech Republic.
World Bank, 2012. Inclusive Green Growth. The Pathway to Sustainable Development. Washington, DC, USA.
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2021-11-01
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